Genetics

How is DNA structured, and how does its shape help it store genetic information? How is genetic information encoded in the sequence of DNA bases? What is the difference between a gene, a chromosome, and the entire genome? How do cells copy DNA accurately, and what happens when mistakes occur? How did the discovery of DNA’s structure change the field of biology?

What were Mendel’s key experiments, and what patterns of inheritance did he discover? How do dominant and recessive alleles influence the traits we see in offspring? What are Punnett squares, and how can they help predict inheritance patterns? What kinds of traits do not follow simple Mendelian rules, and why? How do linked genes and crossing over affect inheritance patterns?

How do multiple genes and environmental factors work together to shape complex traits? What is heritability, and what does it tell us about the influence of genes on a trait? How can identical twins help scientists separate genetic and environmental effects? What are epigenetic changes, and how can they influence gene activity without altering DNA sequence? What ethical questions arise when we talk about genes and human behavior or intelligence?

What types of mutations can occur in DNA, and how do they arise? How can a single base change in a gene lead to a serious genetic disorder? What is the difference between inherited and acquired (somatic) mutations? How do genetic screening and counseling help families understand disease risks? How do populations carry many harmful mutations but still remain healthy overall?

How do technologies like PCR and DNA sequencing work at a basic level? What is CRISPR gene editing, and how is it changing research and medicine? How are genetic tests used in medicine, ancestry tracing, and forensics? What are some benefits and risks of editing genes in humans, animals, or crops? What ethical principles should guide how we use powerful genetic technologies?