Molecular Biology

What does the central dogma of molecular biology describe, and why is it important? How is information copied from DNA into RNA during transcription? How do ribosomes use mRNA and tRNA to build proteins during translation? What happens when errors occur during transcription or translation? How do alternative splicing and post-translational modifications increase protein diversity?

What are enzymes, and how do they speed up chemical reactions in cells? How do temperature, pH, and substrate concentration affect enzyme activity? What is the difference between competitive and noncompetitive enzyme inhibition? How do cells use feedback mechanisms to regulate metabolic pathways? How have enzymes been harnessed in industrial processes and biotechnology?

How do cells turn specific genes on or off in response to internal and external signals? What are promoters, enhancers, and transcription factors, and how do they work together? How do signaling molecules and receptors communicate information between cells? What is a signaling pathway, and how can misregulation lead to disease? How do hormones and growth factors use signaling to coordinate activities across tissues?

How do techniques like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing work in principle? How is cloning used to study and manipulate genes in the lab? What is a plasmid, and how is it used in genetic engineering? How do scientists use fluorescent tags and microscopy to track molecules in cells? How have advances in molecular tools changed medicine and biology in the last few decades?

How do mutations in certain genes contribute to the development of cancer? What are oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, and how do they differ? How do changes in cell cycle control and apoptosis lead to uncontrolled cell growth? How are targeted therapies designed to attack specific molecular features of cancer cells? What other diseases have clear molecular causes, and how does that guide treatment?